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Viruses

David P. Mindell
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Scanning electron micrograph of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Containing group: Life on Earth

References

Calisher, C. H., M. C. Horzinek, M. A. Mayo, H. W. Ackermann, and J. Maniloff. 1995. Sequence analyses and a unifying system of virus taxonomy - consensus via consent. Archives of Virology 140 (11):2093-2099.

Fauquet, C. M., M. A. Mayo, J. Maniloff, U. Desselberger, and L. A. Ball (Eds.). 2005. Virus Taxonomy. Elsevier, San Diego.

Fields, B. N., D. M. Knipe, and P. M. Howley (eds.) 1996. Fields Virology, 3rd ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, Pa.

Gibbs, A. J. 2000. Virus nomenclature descending into chaos. Archives of Virology 145:1505-1507.

Hendrix, R. W. 1999. The long evolutionary reach of viruses. Current Biology 9:R914-R917.

Hendrix, R. W., J. G. Lawrence, G. F. Hatfull, and S. Casjens. 2000. The origins and ongoing evolution of viruses. Trends in Microbiology 8:504-508.

Hendrix, R. W., M. C. M. Smith, R. N. Burns, M. E. Ford, and G. F. Hatfull. 1999. Evolutionary relationships among diverse bacteriophages and prophages: all the world's a phage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 96:2192-2197.

Iyer, L. M., L. Aravind, and E. V. Koonin. 2001. Common Origin of Four Diverse Families of Large Eukaryotic DNA Viruses. Journal of Virology 75(23):11720-11734.

Lawrence, J. G., G. F. Hatfull, and R. W. Hendrix. 2002. Imbroglios of viral taxonomy: Genetic exchange and failings of phenetic approaches. Journal of Bacteriology 184(17):4891-4905.

Lovisolo, O., R. Hull, and O. Rösler. 2003. Coevolution of viruses with hosts and vectors and possible paleontology. Advances in Virus Research 62:325-379.

McCormack, G. P. and J. P. Clewley. 2002. The application of molecular phylogenetics to the analysis of viral genome diversity and evolution. Reviews in Medical Virology 12(4):221-238.

Mindell, D. P., J. S. Rest, and L. P. Villarreal. 2004. Viruses and the tree of life. Pp. 107-118 in Cracraft, J. and M. J. Donoghue (eds.), Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford University Press, New York.

Rice, G., L. Tang, K. Stedman, F. Roberto, J. Spuhler, E. Gillitzer, J. E. Johnson, T. Douglas, and M. Young. 2004. The structure of a thermophilic archaeal virus shows a double-stranded DNA viral capsid type that spans all domains of life. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) 101(20):7716-7720.

Tidona, C. A. and G. Darai. 2000. Iridovirus homologues of cellular genes -- implications for the molecular evolution of large DNA viruses. Virus Genes 21:77-81.

Villarreal, L. P. and V. R. DeFilippis. 2000. A hypothesis for DNA viruses as the origin of eukaryotic replication proteins. Journal of Virology 74:7079-7084.

Villarreal, L. P. 2005. Viruses and the Evolution of Life. ASM Press. Washington DC.

van Regenmortel, M. H. V. 2004. Viruses are real, virus species are man-made, taxonomic constructions. Archives of Virology 148(12):2481-2488.

van Regenmortel, M. H. V., C. M. Fauquet, D. H. L. Bishop, E. B. Carstens, M. K. Estes, S. M. Lemon, J. Maniloff, M. A. Mayo, D. J. McGeoch, C. R. Pringle, and R. B. Wickner (eds.) 2000. Virus Taxonomy. Seventh Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Academic Press, San Diego.

van Regenmortel, M. H. V. and B. W. J. Mahy. 2004. Emerging issues in virus taxonomy. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10(1):8-13.

van Regenmortel, M. H. V., M. A. Mayo, C. M. Fauquet, and J. Maniloff. 2000. Virus nomenclature: consensus versus chaos. Archives of Virology 145(10):2227-2232.

Ward, C. W. 1993. Progress towards a higher taxonomy of viruses. Research in Virology 144(6):419-453.

Zanotto, P. M. D., M. J. Gibbs, E. A. Gould, and E. C. Holmes. 1996. A reevaluation of the higher taxonomy of viruses based on RNA polymerases. Journal of Virology 70(9):6083-6096.

Information on the Internet

Title Illustrations
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new window
Click on an image to view larger version & data in a new window
Scanning electron micrograph of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Scientific Name Lentivirus
Comments Scanning electron micrograph of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), grown in cultured lymphocytes. Virions are seen as small spheres on the surface of the cells.
Creator C. Goldsmith (Center for Disease Control)
Specimen Condition Dead Specimen
Source Collection Public Health Image Library (Centers for Disease Control)
Scientific Name Ebolavirus
Comments Transmission electron micrograph of the ebola virus, hemorrhagic fever.
Creator C. Goldsmith (Center for Disease Control)
Specimen Condition Dead Specimen
Source Collection Public Health Image Library (Centers for Disease Control)
Scientific Name Simplexvirus
Comments Transmission electron micrograph of herpes simplex virus. Some nucleocapsids are empty, as shown by penetration of electron-dense stain.
Creator Dr. Erskine Palmer (Center for Disease Control)
Specimen Condition Dead Specimen
Source Collection Public Health Image Library (Centers for Disease Control)
About This Page

David P. Mindell
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California, USA

Correspondence regarding this page should be directed to David P. Mindell at

Page: Tree of Life Viruses. Authored by David P. Mindell. The TEXT of this page is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial License - Version 3.0. Note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license, and they may or may not be available for reuse. Click on an image or a media link to access the media data window, which provides the relevant licensing information. For the general terms and conditions of ToL material reuse and redistribution, please see the Tree of Life Copyright Policies.

Citing this page:

Mindell, David P. 2005. Viruses. Version 01 January 2005 (temporary). http://tolweb.org/Viruses/5/2005.01.01 in The Tree of Life Web Project, http://tolweb.org/

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